Bottled Water in Australia

Bling h2o is a high end or â€Å"Super Luxury† bottled water product created by Kevin G Boyd a Hollywood producer / designer. Bling h2o costs from $US35. 00 to $US2,600. 00 per bottle and the water is bottled into glass bottles studded with Swarovski crystals. Bling has been featured on MTV music awards and The Emmys and on it’s website refers to itself as the Rolls Royce of bottled water. To identify the potential consumers in Australia we need to look at the target market and market segments bling are looking to fulfill. The premium status, and pricing, that bling put on their product would narrow the geographic segment to the economic centers of Australia, which Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. A geographic segmentation is identifying and analysing the location that a company is looking to move into. In Australia a potential geographic profile would start at the state level, then move into cities, then if necessary a municipal level to identify potential consumer (Kotler, P. , Adam, S. , Denize, S. , Armstrong, G. 2009), The demographic make-up of a potential market is made up of the age group, income, occupation, gender, race, education and religion. Demographic segmentation is a popular form of analysis and very important part of identifying the size and methods of communicating with a target market. (Kotler et al, 2009) After reviewing the media on bling and the website the demographic profile for bling would be 20 – 35 year old age bracket with a high level of income. This is supported by bling’s involvement with MTV, The Emmy's and the price of their product. The psychographic and behavioural segmentation bling would be looking at is a benefits viewpoint (Kotler et al, 2009). The benefits class is the benefits the user perceives to obtaining by using the product. The benefits from bling h2o are that of social status and class by drinking bling users would be setting themselves apart. From the marketing segmentation identified bling would be looking at a young high income earners who place a high importance on their external image. Along with targeting the these individuals, 5 star hotels and up market nightclubs would also be consumers of these products due the overlapping target market and perceived image they are looking to convey. This is identified by bling themselves on their ebsite where Boyd had the idea whilst observing celebrities and how each of them treated the bottled water they drunk In 2004 – 2005 Australians consumed about 550 million litres of bottled water, with worldwide consumption growing 57% from 1999 to 154 billion litres. (Munro 2006). The main industry body in Australia is the ABWI which was established 10 years ago and clai ms its objectives are to promote awareness and use of bottled water, and to ensure that consumers have safe good tasting water. The ABWI boasts member such as Coca- Cola Amatil Ltd and Schweppes Australia ttp://www. bottledwater. org. au/scripts/cgiip. exe/WService=ASP0003/ccms. r? Roxy=0x0002f062=10007 Bottled water is being looked at as a serious environmental issue. The main packaging for bottled water is plastic, which is made from fossil fuels and Australia uses 314,000 barrels of oil in bottling water each year (Koutsoukis, 2007) Although the plastic bottled water comes in is recyclable, Australians are only recycling around 35% of the bottled water they purchases, 55% goes to landfill which accounts for 70,000 tonnes of plastic waste. Koutsoukis, 2007) (Munro 2006). It is been seen as such an environmental issue that Bundanoon, a small town in NSW, has banned the sale of bottled water in its stores when a company was looking to extract water from their underground reservoir, and claims to be the first town in the world to enact such a policy. A review of social media surrounding bling h2o a large percentage of blogs condemned bling for being over priced and had concerns about water being sold at such a premium when much of the world is without clean water. An internet blog by Sassisam title Bling H2O – Ego in a bottle. Sassi Sam points out that she consumes 4 bottles of water a day and that would equate to $US980 per week just for water. Sassi Sam concluded that she would consider buying from bling if they supported charities that focused on supplying clean water to those who don’t have access to it. Bling was featured on the site BoingBoing and points out that people who buy this must be fools. The interactive comments section of BoingBoing raised the issues of the importance of social status and that is reaching ridicules levels. BoingBoing was the only website that brought up the issue of socially responsible marketing by user Cameron Barrett. If the author of this article was the brand manager of bling h20 they would be associating themselves with one of the many charitable organisations that are helping provided clean drinking water. An organisation like charity water is able to provide a person with clean drinking water for $1 a year. This small cost compared to the premium charge would quell the concerns over the ethics of the company and leave the image issue with those who buy it. ttp://www. theage. com. au/news/national/bottled-water-the-new-ecodisaster/2006/02/25/ 1140670303250. html http://www. theage. com. au/articles/2007/08/18/1186857841959. html? page=fullpage#contentSwap1 http://news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8141569. stm http://www. bottledwater. org. au/scripts/cgiip. exe/WService=ASP0003/ccms. r? Roxy=0x0002f062=10007 Kotler, P. , Adam, S. , Denize, S. , Armstrong, G. (2009), Principles of Marketing. Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest

Amish Culture

This means that the husband has control over his wife and the decisions and orders he makes are the ones that she must stick by. Amiss women also are the primary caretakers of the home and also school the children. While this Is not the case In Australian culture; In most cases both men and women are seen as equals In Australian culture even though men (In certain cases) are paid more than women. Marriage Isn't required; It's something two people In the Australian culture choose to do. When a couple chooses arraign they still have equal rights In the relationship and both can make decisions together.Females in the Australian culture are responsible for more decisions and men are now taking on more chores and other chores that were traditionally viewed as female roles. The Amiss culture is based on simplicity and religion, their lives are made to be as simple and natural as possible whilst obeying the bible at all times. In the Amiss culture women are to wear solid colored dresses tha t cover most of their kin, an apron and bonnet with their hair tied back and no Jewelry is to be worn.Women are not to tempt men as their natural beauty and simplicity is what attracts an Amiss man, Amiss men wear long pants and shirts, hats and grow beards. In the Amiss culture they do not allow photographs to be taken of them because they believe that drawing attention to them is a sin. The Amiss aim to maintain farms and earn their money through their farms as a lifestyle and an occupation. Whereas, Australian culture is largely made up of individuality and opportunity.Being different to one another and standing out is encouraged, dress code in the Australian culture is entirely made up on what one feels like wearing. Hair color, the way one dresses and the jewelry worn is up to a person to express themselves. Every day in the Australian culture there are new opportunities and different paths that lead to deferent ways of life, every day can be completely different to the one bef ore. Amiss are ultra conservative Christians who try to follow the Bible instead of worldly society around them.The bible is the Mamma's major source of power and authority and Amiss communities are influenced by their church with minimal Influence from the ‘English World' (outside world) with other religions being unaccepted. At the age of 14-16, a child gets to decide whether they would Like to be baptized back Into the Amiss community or Instead leaves the community to Join the English World at the opportunity of a Reemergence. Most decide to enter the Amiss community with a baptism but If they do not they are shunned from their previous community.If baptismal vows are broken then that leads to a member of the community to being shunned. When a member of the community Is shunned It means that they have been excommunicated with the church so that means that they cannot eat or ride with Shunning is a way of punishment to the Amiss for breaking rules because the Amiss communit y is all that one has after being baptized and being shut out from everything and everyone you love makes them learn their lesson. Males in the family are the main sources of power, as fathers are the primary authoritative figure.Decisions are made solely by the father with authority rarely changing. Australians are worldly, all religions are accepted and in most cases in a family both parents have power, authority and decision making over the family. Not all Australians are Christians or are religious at all in that case, meaning that not everyone is baptized. Even if someone in the Australian culture is baptized does not mean that they have to live by the bible. Each Australian has the opportunity to live whichever way they would like to including their religion, occupation and status.

Evidence For Prescribing Fluoride Varnishes Health And Social Care Essay

Dental cavities is one of the most common disease processes across all populations throughout the universe and a cardinal factor in dental hurting and tooth loss. Caries is a procedure that can happen on any tooth surface in the oral cavity where alveolar consonant plaque is able to develop over clip. Bing a biofilm, plaque contains many different microorganisms that work together and are continually active. Some of these bacteriums are able to ferment soluble saccharides to bring forth acids, ensuing in a bead in sourness below pH 5 and hence doing demineralization of the enamel surface. Acid is neutralized by spit and the demineralization procedure halted, as the pH rises, mineral may be regained and remineralisation can happen. If the cumulative consequence of these procedures is a net loss in mineral, a carious lesion will be observed. The carious procedure is hence natural and can non be prevented nevertheless with suited intercession, the patterned advance into a seeable lesion can be avoided1. The bar of cavities is considered more cost-efficient than intervention and is hence considered a priority2. Fluoride varnishes since the 1960 ‘s have been clinically utilized for this reason17,18. Application of concentrated fluoride varnishes to tooth surfaces consequences in the formation of Ca fluoride. As the sourness of the environment additions, a greater sum of enamel disintegration occurs and hence an copiousness of ionic Ca allows for a considerable sum of Ca fluoride formation. Significant precipitation of spherical globules of Ca fluoride in dental plaque and unaccessible countries is of great benefit leting for important remineralisation due to the high concentration of free ionic Ca available3. Fluoride besides has a direct consequence on bacterial metamorphosis ( see appendix 4, table 1 for details16 ) .MethodOf the three surveies reviewed, one was carried out in Sweden4, one in Florida5 and one in San Francisco6. In these trials,1375 participants were studied ru ning from ?1.8 to 16 old ages old and followed for periods between 9 months and 3 old ages. Each survey had a specific purposes, one focused on a school based fluoride varnish programme and the patterned advance and incidence of approximal cavities from high, medium and low socio-economic backgrounds4. Another concerned the efficaciousness of fluoride varnish in add-on to reding in the bar of early childhood caries6, whilst the concluding survey evaluated the consequence of fluoride varnish on enamel cavities patterned advance in the primary dentition5. The chief features of each survey and their consequences are displayed in Appendices 14, 25 and 36. Randomization was used to delegate participants into each of the groups in all tests and one study6 outlined the allotment technique used. Two surveies were individual blind4,5 where the tooth doctor was incognizant of the group allotments and one was conducted as a dual blind trial6. All surveies used Duraphat ( 5 % Sodium Fluoride 22,600 F-ppm ) with two studies5,6 using varnish to all tooth surfaces and the 3rd study4 using varnish merely to approximal surfaces from the distal surface of the eyetooths to the mesial surface of the 2nd grinders. Two surveies stated the sum of fluoride varnish to be used ; 0.1ml per arch6 and ?0.3ml in total4. Examination techniques differed amongst the three selected surveies. One conducted a ocular scrutiny three times6, another conducted four overall bitewing radiogram at baseline and after the trial4. The 3rd conducted both radiographic bitewings and a ocular scrutiny besides at baseline and following the test, explicitly discoursing the method6. All experiments experienced a loss of participants to some grade. Weintraub et al.6 concluded 67 % of participants enrolled at baseline saw the survey through, the test conducted by Autio-Gold et al.5 retained 81 % of initial participants. In the concluding experiment by Sk & A ; ouml ; ld et al.4, 89 % of topics completed the test. Ultimately, all surveies agreed fluoride varnish is of significance in forestalling caries4,5,6 and may be effectual in change by reversaling cavity and crevice enamel lesions5. Findingss were assessed in footings of statistical significance and all three4,5,6 gave P values. Differences in measuring lesions clinically can be seen. Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 used a self-devised numbered marking system to find cavities incidence and patterned advance of carious lesions. Weintraub et al.6 used the NIDCR diagnostic standards for dental caries7 for the appraisal of cavitated, decayed and filled surfaces on primary dentitions and auxiliary criteria8 to name pre-cavitated lesions. Finally Autio-gold et al.5 utilised a marking system9 which differentiates between active and inactive enamel carious lesions.DiscussionAlthough all surveies statistically support the usage of fluoride varnish in the bar of cavities, the methodological analysis of each demand to be considered before any decisions c an be drawn. Double blind randomized control tests are considered the ‘gold criterion ‘ in footings of survey design10 and minimise prejudice. In all of these tests, the tooth doctors were incognizant of patient allocated groups nevertheless in two4,5, the participants were cognizant. This could hold led to bias in those surveies as cognizing they were portion of a test with regular follow up periods, patients may hold been more self-aware with respect to their unwritten wellness and hence take more preventive steps compared to groups with fewer visits. Overall this consequence may give the feeling that a more frequent application of varnish reduces cavities incidence. Sample size demands to be taken into history as a larger cohort will give a more accurate representation of the population, doing Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 the most representative of the three tests. Gender was reasonably every bit distributed in both varnish and hazard groups. This is of significance as it has been shown that females are by and large more compliant than males11 and therefore are more likely to brush on a regular basis, maintaining to the survey design. Bias in this illustration is hence reduced as females are every bit distributed across all groups. Weintraub6 and Autio-Gold5 did non advert gender distribution and hence lend themselves to this prejudice. When sing the clip period in which tests are conducted, a greater clip graduated table allows for a more comprehensive result. Potential side effects of fluoride varnish are more likely to go evident and its anti cavities consequence can be reviewed for any possible alterations as there may be a critical period for which it has consequence. Again, Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 conducted the longest test at 3 old ages and hence in footings of clip period, have the most accurate consequences for effects of fluoride and its side effects, of which they found none. Weintraub et al.6 besides used a sensible clip period and would demo any side-effects or critical periods for fluoride applications, merely one kid in the group having fluoride four times a twelvemonth developed an ulcer on their cheek which had resolved at the following followup. There is no grounds to back up unwritten ulcerations as a consequence of fluoride varnish application. The test conducted Autio-Gold5 was over a shorter period and hence compared to Weintraub6 and Sk & A ; ouml ; l4, can non be as conclusive in critical periods of application and side effects. Follow up periods are of relevancy as changing frequences of application can be assessed for effectivity. Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 utilised the greatest figure of groups with the most differing frequences to set up the most effectual intervals. The method in which fluoride varnish was applied varied and one specific survey, Autio-Gold5, failed to stipulate whether application on all tooth surfaces at the 2nd follow up occurred, as at the baseline. Besides the sum of fluoride varnish applied is non stated as in the two other studies4,6. Therefore the survey can potentially be classified as inconsistent and cogency of the consequences questionable. Application of the varnish was conducted in similar ways across all three tests nevertheless Weintraub et al.6 used ?66 % of the fluoride varnish than Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 and it must be considered that a higher dose of fluoride may hold a greater preventive consequence. The locations in which the surveies took topographic point differ. Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 conducted their probe in Sweden where H2O is fluoridated. Socio-economic position is associated with unwritten health12 and in this survey, the low hazard group had a high socio-economic position. The extra factor nevertheless, is that the location of this group is besides in an country of H2O fluoridization ten times higher than that of the medium or low hazard groups. It has been shown that fluoridization reduces cavities incidence13 intending these participants technically received an increased dose and therefore may hold influenced the consequences to demo a decreased effectivity of fluoride varnish. In the other two studies5,6 this variable was controlled and Weintraub et al.6 ensured participants resided in the country for at least 2 old ages. Age of participants is of importance as striplings in the Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 survey are responsible for their ain unwritten hygiene and it has been shown that 25 % of 14-year-olds do non on a regular basis brush their teeth14,15. Consequences can hence be influenced in this test. If ?25 % participants did non brush on a regular basis, theoretically it would do increased cavities incidence in these people compared to the other 75 % of the cohort and finally give the feeling fluoride varnish has a lesser consequence than in world. Autio-Gold5 and Weintraub6 used primary5 and pre-school6 kids where parents and defenders are more likely to conform to the survey design and better the cogency of the consequences. Consequences were based on the findings of the testers therefore their determinations are important. Autio-Gold5 and Weintraub6 both calibrated testers nevertheless Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 did non advert any dependability apart from re-examining radiogram after 2 months, the consequences of which, are non published. There is hence a possibility of inaccuracy in cavities diagnosing at each follow up, which would give either a greater or lesser perceived fluoride consequence depending on tester tolerance. Caries diagnosing methods vary, ideally a radiographic and ocular scrutiny should be conducted as white topographic point lesions and early cavities can non be seen radiographically, the attack taken by Autio-Gold et al.5. Weintraub et al.6 used merely ocular scrutinies and hence, although improbable, potentially leting for non-cavitated lesions to be missed. Sk & A ; ouml ; l et al.4 took merely radiographs nevertheless this was appropriate as approximal cavities can be merely be s een in this manner. Deviations in protocol can be seen in two surveies. In Sk & A ; ouml ; l et Al. ‘s4 test, all groups received an extra application of fluoride every one-year visit including the control group. Realistically the control group hence received intercession and perchance affected the consequences. Weintraub et al.6 experienced a more terrible divergence. For 10 months, participants received a placebo varnish alternatively of the active merchandise and merely one kid received all four planned applications. Besides 21 applications could non be confirmed as active and were assumed placebo. This may hold given the feeling of a greater good consequence of fluoride varnish if the placebo was active. Any long term positive or negative effects can therefore non be concluded with every bit much assurance as the other two trials4,5 as there was a interruption in the application of active merchandise. A Cochrane systematic review19 determined that on norm, fluoride varnish reduced cavities in the deciduous teething by 33 % and by 46 % in the lasting teething.DecisionIn decision, holding considered the grounds base for the usage of fluoride varnish and evaluated the advantages and disadvantages of all mentioned surveies and their restrictions, fluoride varnish is an effectual method in commanding cavities incidence and patterned advance.RecommendationsFluoride varnish should be indicated in all kids and striplings. Adults with a high cavities hazard should besides be considered, such as those with particular demands, dry mouth or active carious lesions. Children and striplings should have application biannually and grownups with carious lesions or particular demands should hold varnish applied between two and four times yearly. No common or serious inauspicious effects have been reported in any surveies. As a safeguard fluoride varnish is contraindicated in terrible asthmatics, ulc erative gingivitis and stomatitis. Besides allergy to seal components is an obvious contraindication.MentionsKidd EAM. Introduction. In: Kidd EAM editor. Necessities of Dental Caries. 3rd erectile dysfunction. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. ; 2005. p. 2-19. Burt BA. Prevention policies in the visible radiation of the changed distribution of dental cavities. Acta Odontologica Scandinavia 1998 ; 56:179-86. Fejerskov O, Kidd EAM. Chemical interactions between the tooth and unwritten fluids. In: 10 Cate JM, Larsen MJ, Pearce EIF, Ferjerskov O, editors. Dental cavities: the disease and its clinical direction. Oxford: Blackwell Munksgaard ; 2003. p. 49-69. Sk & A ; ouml ; ld UM, Petersson LG, Lith A, Birkhed D. Effect of school-based fluoride varnish programmes on approximal cavities in striplings from different cavities risk countries. Caries Res. 2005 ; 39:273-9. Autio-Gold JT, Courts F. Assessing the consequence of fluoride varnish on early enamel carious lesions in the primary teething. JADA. 2001 Sept ; 132:1247-1253. Weintraub JA, Ramos-Gomez F, Shain JS, Hoover CI, Featherstone JDB, Gansky SA. Fluoride varnish efficaciousness in forestalling early childhood cavities. J Dent Res. 2006 Feb ; 85 ( 2 ) :172-6. USDHHS, PHS, NIH, NIDR. Oral wellness studies of the National Institute of Dental Research: diagnostic standards and processs. NIH Publication No 91-2870. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, NIH: 1991. Drury TF, Horowitz AM, Ismail AI, Maertens MP, Rozier RG, Selwitz RH. Diagnosing and describing early childhood cavities for research intents. J Public Health Dent 1999 ; 59:192-7. Nyvad B, Fejerskov O. Assessing the phase of cavities lesion activity on the footing of clinical and microbiological scrutiny. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1997 ; 25:69-75. Concato J, N Shah, RI Horwitz. Randomized, controlled tests, experimental surveies, and the hierarchy of research designs. N Engl J Med. 2000 ; 342:1887-92. Kuczynski L, Kochanska G, Radke-Yarrow M, Girnius-Brown O. A developmental reading of immature kids ‘s disobedience. Developmental Psychology. 1987 ; 23,799. Bolin AK, Bolin A, Jansson L, Calltorp J. Children ‘s dental wellness in Europe. Sociodemographic factors associated with dental cavities in groups of 5 and 12-year-old kids from eight EU-countries. Swed Dent J 1997 ; 21:25-40. Brunelle JA, Carlos JP. Recent trends in dental cavities in U.S. kids and the consequence of H2O fluoridization. J Dent Res.1990 Feb ; 69 ( Particular Issue ) :723-7 Klock B, Emilson CG, Lind SO, Gustavsdotter M, Olhede-Westerlund AM. Prediction of cavities activity in kids with today ‘s low cavities incidence. Community Dental Oral Epidemiol. 1989 ; 17:285-8. Koivusilta L, Honkala S, Honkala E, Rimpel & A ; auml ; A. Toothbrushing as portion of the striplings lifestyle predicts education degree. J Dent Res. 2003 ; 82:361-6. Marsh PD. Effect of fluorides on bacterial metamorphosis. In: Bowen WH, editor. Relative efficaciousness of Na fluoride and Na monofluorophosphatae as anti-caries agents in detrifices. London: Royal Society of Medicine Press Limited ; 1995. Bawden JW. Fluoride varnish: a utile new tool for public wellness dental medicine. J Public Health Dent. 1998 ; 58:266-9. Beltran-Aguilar ED, Goldstein JW, Lockwood SA. Fluoride varnishes: a reappraisal of their clinical usage, cariostatic mechanism, efficaciousness and safety. J Am Dent Assoc. 2000 ; 131:589-96. Marinho VCC, Higgins JPT, Logan S, Sheiham A. Fluoride varnishes for forestalling dental cavities in kids and striplings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002 ; 3: CD002279.Appendix 1Sk & A ; ouml ; ld 20054: Methods Randomised control test, individual blind to dentist. 11 % bead out after 3 old ages. Reasons for bead out include traveling off from country and non go toing all Sessionss. Overall 96 losingss. Participants 758 participants analysed at 3 old ages ( concluding scrutiny ) Average age at get downing: 13 old ages Exposure to other fluoride: H2O, toothpaste, varnish at annually check-up Year survey began: 1998 Location: Sverige Interventions Fluoride varnish Duraphat ( 22,600 ppm F- ) ( 3 groups ) vs. control group: Group 1: F- varnish 2x yearly at 6 month intervals Group 2: F- varnish 3x yearly within one hebdomad Group 3: F- varnish 8x yearly with 1 month intervals Control group: No intercession Teeth cleaned with toothbrush without toothpaste and interproximally cleaned utilizing dental floss Applied ?0.3ml with syringe on all approximal surfaces from distal of eyetooth to mesial of 2nd grinder. Results Prevented fraction in per centum in the different cavities risk countries and all countries together ( Table 3 ) 4 Areas Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 All countries 57 % 47 % 76 % Low hazard 20 % 68 % 50 % Medium hazard 66 % 31 % 83 % High hazard 69 % 54 % 82 % Notes Participants randomised ( n=854 ) All groups including control exposed to fluoride at one-year cheque up Figures and tabular arraies demoing consequences from Sk & A ; ouml ; ld et al.4Appendix 2Autio-Gold 20015: Methods Randomised control test, individual blind to dentist. 19 % bead out rate after 9 months. Due to backdown of school programme, traveling from country, refusal to go on and six topics necessitating renewing intervention instantly after survey began. Overall 35 losingss. Participants 148 participants analysed at 9 months ( concluding scrutiny ) Average age at get downing: 3 to 5 old ages Exposure to other fluoride: H2O Year survey began: Not stated Location: Florida, USA Interventions Fluoride varnish Duraphat ( 22,600 ppm F- ) Varnish group: 2x over 9 months, one time at baseline and one time after 4 months Control group: No intercession In dental clinic, dried dentition with tight air and applied varnish with little coppice to all tooth surfaces. In school dentitions dried with unfertile cotton sponges and varnish applied to all tooth surfaces with coppice. Result Change in carious activity between varnish and control group Group No alteration ( i.e. still active ) Inactive lesions ( i.e. no longer active ) Varnish 8.2 % 81.2 % Control 36.9 % 37.8 % Notes Participants randomised ( n=183 ) Does non province whether or non varnish was applied to all surfaces during the 2nd visit in varnish group. Besides how much varnish applied in both visits. Figures and tabular arraies demoing consequences from Autio-Gold et al.5:Appendix 3Weintraub 20066: Methods Randomised controlled dual blind test. 33 % bead out rate after 2 old ages. 51 discontinued from survey due to cavities. Participants 202 participants analysed at 2 old ages ( concluding scrutiny ) Average age at get downing: 1.8 old ages Exposure to other fluoride: H2O Year survey began: 2002 Location: San Francisco, USA Interventions Fluoride varnish Duraphat ( 22,600 ppm F- ) Group 1: F- varnish 4x over 2 old ages ( baseline, 6, 12 and 18 months ) Group 2: F- varnish 2x over 2 old ages ( baseline and 12 months ) Control group: Parental guidance All groups received parental guidance. 0.1ml applied per arch. Dried with gauze and varnish brushed onto all surfaces of all dentitions. For control group, teeth dried and gauze folded dry surface brushed onto dentitions and therefore health professionals unaware of groups. Results Cavities activity across the three groups: No cavities Cavities Group 1 67 3 Group 2 59 10 Control 48 15 Notes Participants randomised utilizing computing machine generated random assignment ( n=384 ) . 75 % kids intended to have two applications merely received one ; 15 % received two. 49 % kids intended to have four applications merely received two. One kid received four applications. For five hebdomads, 21 varnish applications could non be confirmed as active – assumed placebo. Figures and tabular arraies demoing consequences from Weintraub et al.6:

Introduction to business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

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Corporate Governance - Assignment Example suring proper corporate governance ensure that they operate in accordance with the existing business ethics and that they remain socially responsible (Goodman & Schwartz 2013, p. 67). The board of governors is tasked with the responsibility of ensuring that all the systems of corporate governance are functional, and that all shareholders and the stakeholders are well protected. In addition, successful corporate governance is exhibited by the commitment of the board of governors in carrying out transparent transactions and ensuring that the company registers value and minimal risks. This high level of commitment ensures that the no stakeholder interest is compromised. Corporate governance is a concept that emerged in the early years when ownership and management of companies became separate entities. However, the concept was fully described in the 1990s because of numerous scandals that surrounded many companies. In the modern day, it is a critical concept in the business world (Bouba ker, Nguyen, & Nguyen 2012, p. 38). A close analysis of one of the global leading companies and its corporate governance strategies will serve to shed more light on the criticality of this concept. BP Plc is a multinational oil and gas company whose headquarters are in London United Kingdom. The company has been ranked in the top ten oil and gas companies and qualifies to be under the category of â€Å"super majors† in the industry. The company has existed for over a century since it was established in 1909. Over the years, the company has registered remarkable success extending its operations to about 80 countries according to the 2013 statistics (New Report Provides an In-depth Company Profile for Multinational Oil Company BP Plc 2007, n.p). BP Plc is one of the companies that can provide highlights on different aspects of the corporate governance. BP plc is an established company with evident business strategies, and diverse range of stakeholders that need its protection. Moreover,

Medical research abroad Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Medical research abroad - Essay Example The last bit of the presentation will conclude about the research conducted. Marriages in most African countries become recognized upon payment of the bride price which has many names in various African settings. In South Africa, it is referred to as labola; in East Africa it is referred to as mahari; in Zimbabwe it is referred to as roora; generally, in African settings, it is referred to as head-money. This payment is normally in the form of cash or other forms, and it is directed towards the family of the lady being married. African women are vulnerable when being used as research specimens as typified by many African constitutions. I will use Nigeria as a case example, maturity is deemed to start when one clocks 18 years. Another way that women can be considered of a mature age is when they have been married. However, as a result of the payment of the bride price, African women are considered as objects that are purchased in marriage. As a result of this, constitutional rights of these women of being regarded mature are taken away from them upon marriage. Therefore, African will be forced to seek approval from their husbands or even family members of their husbands when they want to enroll in clinical research. This is the challenge that is faced in clinical research using African women. The same normally applies for older women who are unmarried. Ion this scenario, the Nigerian constitution and indeed, most African constitutions have placed women under the care of their father or guardian until they are married. However, these rules are not applicable in Europe or in America. Another remarkable finding is that bride price is not paid to black women in the West Indies and the US. Therefore, it is only African black women who become disadvantaged when it comes to this. Solutions to this problem faced by African women have no borne

National Changes In Tuition Fees And Funding 2006 Essay

National Changes In Tuition Fees And Funding 2006 - Essay Example As has been scientifically proven, a slight change or shift in an equilibrium situation is bound to set off a reaction process that moves to contain the change could mean different things to different people going by the Betty and Adams illustration painted above. The obvious fact in education today is that there has being a regime change in tuition fees for new students and this sector and implications underlined. There are currently two tuitions fees types. The first indicates that new students are expected to pay 3,000 up from 1,200 that its initially was. This initial amount is however sustained for old students who are returning to campus. The expectation attached to this increase is that having been calculated and pegged till 2009 it will not be rising above this figure. Fees for sandwich and home foundation years are incidentally not part of this 3,000. One unique observation is however the fact that payment of these fees can be deferred until after graduation. The second tuition type is one in which a tuition fee loan is available, accessible without a no means test. This kind of loan is available to home students and EU nationals and it is paid directly to the university, it also has no age limit for applicants. 75% of students' loans for living costs are available without means test whole 25% is dependent on a means test. The sum of 6,170 is pegged as the maximum loan rates for those in London living a way from home while for those living in parental homes in London if is 3,415. The payment schedule for this loan is on an installment basis paid either in September or January and April. It has an age limit of 60years. Fees and living cost are repayable starting from the April after graduation provided that gross earnings stand at minimum of 15,000 per annum. So it is really dependent on how much the student earns after graduation. 9% of earning over 15,000 are paid through the tax system with an interest not above the approximate rate of inflation. This loan however will be written off after 25years if it remains unpaid. Grant such as the LA grants for living cost exists with a new 2,700 non-payable but means tested grant available to students. Income of 17,500 or less attract the maximum grant partial grants are awarded to families with income of between 17,500-37,425.Families with income above the upper limit of 31,425 are given no grant. Maintenance loans will be reduced by up 1,200 for some students who are receiving full grant or living at home e.t.c. where however the students qualify for social security benefits they shall have the maximum grant without and reduction from their maintenance loan. A minimum of 300 should be offer to students benefiting from the maximum 2,700 grant by institution of higher education charging the maximum 3,000 tuition fees. This is towards helping the students in course-related cost and are not expected to pay back. This compulsory payment to student is done by SLC in January. Additional bursaries are awarded as deemed fits by the institution. Also obtainable in the new tuition and

Game Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Game - Essay Example According to Gee (2003) games and simulations serves as tools for learning outside and within academia. By using games and simulations, students can nurture their project assignments to issues and topics related to their courses. In addition, most learners and trainers are able to comprehend how games and simulations are viewed by different people; hence, they will have the ability to attain huge impact of game use in the real world. Role play and simulations are types of experimental teaching (Russell &Shepherd, 2010). Different roles are assumed by different learners to depict certain personality or character. Second life is considered to be the internet by many. Avatars are allowed to construct structures to represent the real life. The unique feature about second life simulations for realistic role plays is that viewers can listen to live concerts or watch a live stage performance. This enables learners to explore different characters represented by different roles, hence, creates an all-round and active student learning process. Second life ensures students participate entirely in self and ‘other’ assessment to achieve a manageable formative

Super Bowl Ads Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Super Bowl Ads - Assignment Example The commercial of this mega event is a trend setter in the industry due to high cost and quality. The Operah was marketing a jeep. At beginning the product was not clear, it revealed surprises at the end in emotional background. Patriotic emotions were triggered with the help of a very persuasive language. The theme itself was strong enough that it needs not any musical background. Without any music the theme sounds so real and natural. Female narrator suits the theme but the gender change might reduce the impact of the commercial The commercial does not leave a quick impact on a viewer and the Google Trends (Shaughnessy, 2013) shows that there it did not leave any significant impact on the Samsung search uptick. The theme of the commercial is good but it failed to win the viewership of a large segment of the society which may hint the future business, trends and gains. Shaughnessy Haydn (2013). Did Samsungs Superbowl Ad Make A Difference In Its Battle With Apple? . Retrieved from

Reticular Activating System Essay Example for Free

Reticular Activating System Essay He believed that Dreams are the guardians of sleep. He also believed that they provided an insight into the motives of a persons behaviour. He described it as the royal road to the unconscious. He believed that no matter how absurd a dream was it always possessed meaning and logic. He warned that dreams had to be analysed in the context of a person s waking life. According to Freud the mind had 3 components. Id: This is concerned with basic instinctive urges such as the need for food, comfort and sexual gratification. It works at an unconscious level. It is not driven by logic and is the pre-socialized part of the personality. He felt that we are driven by unconscious urges, and that through dreams the unconscious desires are expressed, Thus relieving psychic tensions. The Id works on the Pleasure principle Superego: Its components are the conscience. This threatens the Ego with punishment, in the form of guilt, for bad behaviour. The other component is the ego-ideal which promises rewards, in the form of pride and high self esteem, for good behaviour. This is developed throughout childhood. This part represents the moral part of the personality and wishes to do the decent/right thing. This is a part of the id that has been modified by influences of the external world. This is the decision maker, working on a rational and logical basis. The demands of immediate gratification by the Id will be postponed by the Ego until the appropriate time and place. It is not imposing constraints on moral grounds; its priority is the CONSEQUENSES of behaviour This works on the reality principle. Freud believed that behaviour is an interaction of these 3 systems. With the Id being repressed by the Ego and Superego, causing anxiety during waking hours. During dreams the Superego is partially asleep And the Id can get through. The Superego Disguises the Id thoughts, (to stop nightmares. ) Dreaming, he saw as protecting sleep, by Providing an outlet for disturbing and repressed Thoughts, in a modified form, without them coming Into consciousness. The contents of dreams were referred to as: Latent This is the real meaning of a dream. These would be conflicts or dis. Thought. Manifest This is what you actually dream. He Argues that this is a censored and symbolic. Although Jung had been a close colleague of Freud, helping him form the psychoanalytic movement, in 1913 he broke ranks. He did not agree that all dreams are wish-fulfilments. He believed that they were a way of acquiring self-knowledge and to restore our psychological balance. He stated that they were just as likely to point to the future, (by suggesting solutions), as to the past. He did agree that dreams can reveal parts of the self that are usually concealed during waking hours. He believed that the Id expresses desires through daydreams. He preferred to take a dreams at face value and also to study dream series rather as opposed to an individual dream. WEBB CARTWRIGHT p Problem-solving theory of dreaming They believe that dreams are a way of identifying and working through problems of the waking life. They do not believe that the true meanings of dreams are disguised and therefore do not distinguish between the latent and manifest content. However the use of metaphor is included in their theory. 4 Problem Solving theory cont. A number of studies support this theory. (cartwright,1978), presented people with common problems. Those who were allowed to sleep uninterrupted later made far more realistic suggestions towards a solution than those who had been deprived of REM sleep. Hartman 1973, showed that people suffering from occupational or relationship problems enter REM sleep earlier and spend longer in it than less troubled subjects. EVANS p Reprogramming theory of dreaming According To Evans during REM sleep the brain shuts off from the external world, isolating itself from sensory input. This time is spent sorting through new data and updating existing memory systems. A number of studies have shown that REM sleep increases following mental activities of a complex nature. Herman Roffwarg 1983, also supported Evan s theory. In their study participants wore distorting lenses during their waking day. These made everything appear upside down. This took a great deal of mental effort to adjust to. 5 Sup. for Evan s theory cont. Herman Roffwang 1983 cont Subsequent monitoring revealed an increase in periods of REM sleep. Evan s theory has also been supported by the findings of older people spending shorter periods dreaming. Neurobiological Approach HOBSON McCARLY 1977 Activation synthesis Theory of Dreams They proposed that dreaming begins with the random firing of giant cells, located in the R. A. S. of the pons, which in turn activate adjacent nerve cells. These include those concerned with vision, motor activity and emotion. This activity also reduces the tone of major muscles, producing temporary paralysis. This prevents us acting out our dreams. Morrison 1983, found that cats with damage to the brain stem actually chased the subject of their dreams and ignored real mice. Although the body is not moving, the cerebral cortex is still receiving information, originating from the giant cells, which suggests it is. In an attempt to make sense of the random activity it merges or synthesises it, using memory to create a dream. Activity of nerve cells involved in balance for example may evolve as dreams about falling. 6 Some have argued that if dreams were merely a meaningless bi-product of random firing of nerve cells they would not reflect our daily experiences, as they often do. Hobson and McCarley argued that the areas of the cortex that have been most recently stimulated during the day are also most likely to   together with the brain persistently seeking to find meaning, even if there is none in the data. The unusual intensity and chaos involved in this neural activity accounts for the sometimes erratic and strange content of dreams. Hobson also agued that the periodic activation of the brain during sleep is due to the giant cells of the pons firing in an uncontrolled way. This continues until the supply of the neurotransmitter acetycholine ,which they are sensitive to, is depleted. This brings about the end of REM sleep, until acetycholine stores are replaced, and the nest period of REM sleep will begin. CRICK MITCHISON 1983 Nuero Reverse Learning Theory of Dreams They argued that we dream in order to forget. They view the random firing during REM as the brains method of destroying synaptic connections involved in storing useless information. The removal of worthless or parasitic information creates space for material of more use. They called this process reverse learning or unlearning. 7 They point out that animals who do not have REM sleep, such as dolphins and spiny anteaters have abnormally large cortexes. This could be that they have developed in this way to house vast amounts of information. Alternatively, it could be that with the extra space they have no need to unlearn. Winson suggested that a large cortex enables them to carry out unlearning while awake. This theory would explain why we rarely remember our dreams. According to this model, to remember a dream means that we have re-stored the very info. We were trying to forget. This does not explain why some dreams are very coherent and significant. Connectionists theories suggest that we have no need to save space as we have vast potential for storage information. Critics of neurobiological theories argue that if dreams were meaningless, history would not have provided us with so many examples of creations and inspirations that have manifested during them. Neither the psychological or neurobiological theories of dreaming can account for the findings of activity very similar to REM sleep in foetuses. Jouvert suggests that the firing of nerve cells during REM activates information, concerning instinctual behaviour, that is stored in the genes. Once activated it is then programmed into the brain.

Waves Of Feminism And Theory Sociology Essay

Waves Of Feminism And Theory Sociology Essay Belief in the social, political and economic equality of the sexes, the movement organized around this belief. Feminist theory is an outgrowth of the general movement to empower women worldwide. Feminism can be defined as a recognition and critique of male supremacy combined with effort to change it. Simply saying: Feminist fights for the equality of women and argue that women should share equally in societys opportunities and scare resources. First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. It focused primarily on gaining the right of womens suffrage. The term, first-wave, was coined retrospectively after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as further political inequalities. Second Wave Feminism: The second-wave of the Womens Movement began during the early 1960s and lasted throughout the late 1970s. Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on overturning legal (de jure) obstacles to equality (i.e. voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism addressed a wide range of issues, including unofficial (de facto) inequalities, official legal inequalities, sexuality, family, the workplace, and, perhaps most controversially, reproductive rights. Third Wave Feminism: Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave. and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherrie Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other feminists of color, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Types of Feminism: Liberal Feminism: All people are created equal and should not be denied equality of opportunity because of gender. Liberal Feminists focus their efforts on social change through the construction of legislation and regulation of employment practices. Inequality stems from the denial of equal rights. The primary obstacle to equality is sexism. Marxist Feminism: Division of labor is related to gender role expectations. Females give birth. Males left to support family Bourgeoisie=Men Proletariat=Women Radical Feminism: Male power and privilege is the basis of social relations. Sexism is the ultimate tool used by men to keep women oppressed. Women are the first oppressed group. Womens oppression is the most widespread. Womens oppression is the deepest. Socialist Feminism: Views womens oppression as stemming from their work in the family and the economy. Womens inferior position is the result of class-based capitalism. Socialist believes that history can be made in the private sphere (home) not just the public sphere (work). Feminism and the Media: The mass media have played an important role in the dilution of feminist goals and ideals. They often ignore, trivialize, or belittle the principles of feminism. The media employs several techniques or strategies that contribute to the negative representations of women and feminism, which are also damaging to the central goals of feminism. Women are often represented as sexual spectacles, as being on display for men. Patriarchal society dictates that women be constructed as an object for the gaze of the male spectator. Women are positioned as the passive object of the male gaze, rather than the subject in mainstream media and come to internalize this view (Dow, 1999; 1997; Wahers, 1992). Wahers (1992) describes the male gaze as the idea of men determining the specific vantage point of media depictions of women, as occupying a privileged space in the process-of contacting ways of seeing. Ways of seeing remains an important text for feminist cultural theorists who contend that women are forced to identify themselves within in a visual society constructed for male pleasure (Walters, 1999; 1992). Wolf (1992) suggests that womens attempts at achieving equality are negatively affected by images of women portrayed as sex objects. She discusses the concept of the beauty myth, which refers to how womens societal worth is based on physical appearance and youthful beauty. Walters argues that objectification of women is not an added-on attraction, but rather endemic to the very structure of image-making (Walters, 1999, p. 235). This is exemplified in media advertisements where women are frequently represented in what Wahers (1999) terms a fragmented way. Women are often signified by their specific body parts; their lips, legs, hair, eyes, etc., instead of being represented as a serious whole or subject. In advertisements women are urged to think of their bodies as things or parts that need to be molded and shaped into a male conception of female perfection. The fragmentation of the female body into body parts that women should then improve often results in women having self-hating re lationships with their bodies. Media Feminism in Pakistan: Muslim women form a highly diverse and complex group and assumptions about them are often ill-conceived, miss-informed and grossly miss-represented. This is often reflected in images of them, particularly in the West, as oppressed, powerless and victimized. The voices of Muslim women, striving to keep their religious identity in Western contexts, are seriously under-represented within academic research. In recent years there has been an increasing interest in Islamic culture as a fundamentalist and sensationalist phenomenon. Media coverage and Western scholarship often views Muslim women as an oppressed mute victim and asserts or implies that Islam itself oppresses women. Islamic Feminism and Its Role in Cinema is a study derived to counter react the portrayal of Muslim women by the media. Feminists and Muslim women activists have sought to determine the cause of discrimination against women by examining the effects on Muslim women of patriarchy, kinship and norms within Muslim and non-Muslim societies. 6 Overall trends in the published material focus on colonialism, Orientals and the media as the cause of discrimination against the Muslim womans identity. An extensive study of the research literature has failed to identify how Muslim women filmmakers represent Muslim women and whether they support feminist agenda. Critical Analysis: Movie Name: Dragon Seed (1944) Dragon Seed is co-directed by Harold S. Bucquet and Jack Conway. It received two Academy Award Nominations for Best Supporting Actress, Aline MacMahon, and for Best (Black-and-White) Cinematography, Sidney Wagner. The freewheeling plot has a heroic young Chinese feminist woman, Jade (Katharine Hepburn), who goes dressed as a man to lead her fellow peaceful farmer villagers in an uprising against the Japanese invaders. It opens in the spring of 1937 with patriarch Ling Tan (Walter Huston) and his family planting rice in the valley of Ling, China. The farmers are concerned about the recent Japanese invasion of the north, and take out their anger on Wu Lienas an angry student mob insists that he stop selling Japanese merchandise or else. When he refuses their demands, they destroy his store. Soon after the farmers observe Japanese airplanes bombing the nearby city. The pacifist Ling is shocked by the attack, but along with Lao San and eldest son Lao Ta (Robert Bice) decide to remain on their farm despite the anticipated dangers of a Japanese invasion. While Lao Er and Jade join a resistance group of refugees in the hills. Upon their departure the Japanese Army takes over the valley, and Lao Tas wife Orchid is raped and killed by the invading soldiers, who also kill Wu Liens elderly mother. Ling and his wife remain secure as they go into hiding. This cruelty drives the remaining sons of Ling to join the resistance. In the conclusion, Ling must accept that he must destroy his land so that he can sacrifice his present gains to ensure the future of his grandson. When Jade and hubby rejoin the resistance fighters in the hills to ensure a Free China, they leave their son the, seed of the dragon, in the care of his loving grandparents. The story of this movie showed that how the brave women struggles and fight for their country, she appears as a caring mother, a loving and trustworthy wife and a true patriot. The movie shows that how the heroic young Chinese woman leads her fellow villagers in an uprising against Japanese Invaders. This movie truly reflect the feminism theory.

Effect of Motivation on Employee Training Effectiveness

Effect of Motivation on Employee Training Effectiveness Training is an integral part of workforce development and creation of new competencies within the workforce to ensure that the organization keeps up with the changing needs of the times. Training is related to performance in two ways. Effective training has a direct impact on the performance output and any gap in an individuals performance can sometimes be filled with training. For employees, lack of training also causes a lack of self-satisfaction and productivity. Training is seen as a major cost center in most organizations in India even though its necessity is widely accepted. This negative view can mostly be attributed because of the apparent lack of direct linkage between training and the bottom-line of the company. In todays world, where the HR department needs to justify its expenses, especially in the wake of recession and lay-offs, it is essential that the trainings rendered are of optimum efficiency in achieving the set target and also that it be done at the least possible cost. Hence it is important to understand whether the methods of training employed are yielding the desired results or alternatively if the same results can be attained in more cost effective ways. One major factor influencing the training effectiveness is training motivation, as we have explained in the literature review below. But the attitude of employees towards formal training is another factor which will decide whether it is justified to spend so much money on formal training modules if the same end result can be obtained by informal on the job training if it is preferred by the employees. Hence we explore the links between these constructs. Theoretical Review and Hypothesis: Training Attitude: Development activities like training are significantly affected by attitudes and perceptual variables (Noe and Wilk, 1993).Eagly Chaiken (1998) defined attitude as the psychological tendency to evaluate an entity with a certain degree of favor or disfavor. These attitudes are good predictors of behavior (Ajzen, 1991).We can extend this line of reason to say that a person with a positive attitude to certain entity will show favorable behavioral response towards it and a person with a negative attitude to it will show an unfavorable behavioral response. Training attitude applies the definition of attitude to training. A persons attitude towards training is a measure or reflection of his or her attitude towards the formal process of knowledge and skill acquisition. Thus we can say that training attitude is indirectly a measure of liking an individual has for the formal process of training as opposed to say learning something on-the-job informally. It logically follows that those who ha ve a positive attitude towards training will be more likely to attend the training programs willingly and gain from it as compared to someone who has a negative attitude towards training which is to say, that training attitude determines the motivation with which a person attends training programs, especially in an organizational scenario where training programs are mandatory. Also this very attitude can be linked to how much learning happens in the training. The scale for measuring the training attitude construct was developed by Anupama Narayan and Debra Steele Johnson (2007) for their research. This was a 20 item scale addressing participants evaluation of 2 issues: How relevant and useful they perceived training programs to be. How much they desired to practice acquired skills on job. This scale with 7 point likert type response pattern had a high level of internal consistency (alpha =0.92) However some items were redundant and for the purpose of this research were omitted. The resulting 9 item scale was again tested for internal consistency and displayed a Cronbachs Alpha= 0.91 which is fairly high. The response to the 7 point likert scale was interpreted as a summated score which indicated the degree of positive attitude towards training among the respondents. Training Motivation: Quinones (1997) aptly described motivation to be an individuals choice to dedicate more energy to one set of behavior over others. In the training context, Blanchard Thacker (2004) explain motivation as an inspiration which is directed by trainees personal needs and decision processes they use to satisfy those needs. Or, as Colquitt (2007) puts it , training motivation is the persistence and intensity of learning -directed behavior in the context of training. Training motivation is affected by a diverse set of internal and external factors as suggested by various research papers. Work environment, organizational climate, supervisory support etc are a few of the external factors researched upon whereas the internal factors hypothesized to affect training motivation include self efficacy, personal mental ability and personality (Colquitt et al, 2000). One of the most popular theories to explain motivation is the expectancy theory of how people are motivated by the results of their behavior (Bandura, 1997). We can also view Vrooms expectancy theory as a theoretical framework for examining training motivation. Vrooms model suggests that expectation of an act being followed by a certain outcome often shapes the motivation for doing that act. To extend this to the context of training motivation, if a trainee expects that the effort he puts into attending training programs will yield valued outcomes to him then he will be motivated to attend the same. Hence this research attempts to understand the valence -instrumentality link associated with training. We measure what the trainee values and whether he perceives those things to be outcome of training programs. A 14 item scale, with 7 items each for valence and instrumentality of factors associated with training, was adapted from the research paper by Phyllis Tharenou (2001).The factors of valence included in the scale are Reaching career goals, Pay increase, Job security, Change to workplace, Promotion or advancement, Opportunities for different career paths, Supervisor praise. The responses for these questions were taken on a 7 point likert scale and scores were summated to arrive at the level of training motivation of the respondent. A higher score symbolizes that the respondent values the inherent factors highly and also perceives that training will help him achieve the same. Training Effectiveness: Training effectiveness is essentially a measure of how effective the training imparted was. Many researchers including Ford (1997), Noe (1986), and Tannenbaum (1992) have recognized training effectiveness as a crucial issue for organizations. Employee performance and productivity can be measurably improved if trainings are effective and organizations will be able to avoid wasteful spending on ineffective trainings. Most organizations would want to have a good return on their training investment. According to London (1989) and Noe (1999) training interventions in organizations are going to increase hence the training effectiveness is going to be an important feature in the organizations. Kirkpatricks (1976) four level approach is one of the most extensively used methods for evaluating training effectiveness (Alliger Janak, 1989). This four level approach measures training effectiveness vis-Ã  -vis the trainees reactions to a training program, the extent to which trainees can execute desired behaviors related to the training, the acquisition of skills and knowledge by the trainee and resulting change in the job behaviors of the trainee. It has been a common assumption among researchers that these 4 levels linked in a linear fashion hierarchically. Hamblin (1947) illustrated the cause and effect chain as training leading to reactions which in turn leads to learning and that leads to change in job behavior. But this empirical evidence for this proposed link has been inconclusive. This led Alliger Janak (1989) to conduct a Meta analysis and conclude that the four factors are not necessarily linearly linked. There are several factors like training motivation attitude, context of training and other influences which attenuate the link between trainees reaction and other criterion measures. A four item shortened version of the Kirkpatrick scale was used for measuring the training effectiveness. The measured effectiveness was the perceived effectiveness of the last im parted training program. Sample items in the scale included questions like Did I enjoy the course. The response was obtained on a 7 point likert scale varying from strongly disagree to strongly agree and the summated score of each item response was used as the measure of the training effectiveness and higher the score higher was the perceived effectiveness of the training. Training Attitude and Training Motivation: Individuals disposition or attitude towards formal training programs has been shown to have a direct influence on his training motivation (Ford Noe, 1987). Training attitude also displays his motivation to learn (Tannenbaum Yukl, 1992) and his motivation to attend training (Facteau et al, 1995) as distinct from training motivation. What the above mentioned research suggests is that there is a logical and empirical link between a person liking a training program and being motivated to attend the same. However the extant literature mentions this relationship in a very general and broad format. We would like to hypothesis a more specific relationship. Going back to our definition of training motivation , we have said that it is the perceived valence the trainee associates with certain outcomes and how instrumental he feels attending a training is in order to acquire them .We listed these outcomes as career development, superior praise, promotion or development, pay increase , job secu rity etc. Research suggests that there is very strong link between training attitude and training motivation .Carlson et al.(2000) found a high correlation between training attitude scores and training motivation scores in their research.Now most employees may find that there is a perceived strong connection between attending trainings and achieving these outcomes and hence may attend trainings when they are mandatory rather than volunteer for it. But otherwise, based on his experience he might feel that training programs are a waste of time over all and he learns more on his job. Especially in the context of Indian manufacturing industry where trainings are mandatory, employees might not be predisposed to attending trainings, but will attend them anyways due to perceived benefits. Hence in this research we are testing whether having a positive attitude towards training increases the individuals training motivation and how much is it correlated. Hence, Training Attitude of an individual positively impacts his Training Motivation: Training Motivation and Training Effectiveness: Based on our understanding of motivation, an individual is more likely to expend more energy for a task he is motivated to do and hence is more probable to do that task more effectively than other tasks. Extending this logic forward if a person is motivated to attend training then he is more likely to enjoy the training, learn most from it and apply it on to his job. In other words the effectiveness of the training imparted will be high if the trainees entering the training program are highly motivated for the same. In the organizational context it is imperative that different individuals enter the training with different levels of motivation. These differences in the level of motivation may be an outcome of various factors like personal characteristics and work environments. After studying these effects, Salas et al.1(1992) hypothesized that individuals motivated to do well in training will be the ones who end up learning the content of the program better than their lesser motivated counterparts. Training effectiveness is measured in terms of 4 parameters derived from the Kirkpatricks model. These parameters are namely, Learning, Behavior, Reaction and Applications of skills. Several studies put forth empirical support indicating a link between trainees motivation and learning (Rails Klien, 1991; Clark 1990; Hicks Klimoski 1987; Baldwin et al., 1991).The attention levels and openness to new ideas is increased by pre-training motivation. Hence theoretically trainees who are more motivated should be more ready or primed to learn and apply their learnings. Also a person motivated to attend the training will be more likely to enjoy it thus displaying a positive reaction. Whereas a person who is unmotivated to attend training will not learn much from the training even if he ends up enjoying the experience (Mathieu et al., 1992). Consequently we also hypothesize a direct relation between how much the trainee learns and how much he is motivated about the training to how much of the learned skills he will apply in his job. Thus training motivation can be hypothesized to bring about change in behavior of the trainee as well. Based on the above reasoning we state out second hypothesis as, Training motivation positively impacts training effectiveness Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. Hicks and Klimoski (1987) attempted to study the effect of choice of attending the training program with effectiveness of the training program. They hypothesized that if trainee had a choice of attending a training program then he will be more satisfied by it than otherwise. Ryman and Biersner (1975) also studied the effect of choice on training outcome. They found that giving a choice to attend the training program resulted in lesser dropouts from the program and greater training success. In a slight variation of this experiment, Baldwin, Magjuka and Lober (1991) reported that when trainees received their top choice from the available training programs they reported higher pre training motivation and. They also learned more as compared to other trainees who did not get their top pick. Tannebaum et al. (1992) showed by way of their research that individuals who nominate themselves for training actually attach a greater instrumentality to the program and report higher training motivat ion than others. This in turn leads to greater training effectiveness. The same was researched upon and confirmed by Gormley, Collins et al. (2009) on their study on Medical students undergoing E-learning programs. In our research we would like to extend the above findings to the context of training attitude. Training attitude can be seen as the pre disposition of the individual towards attending training. If the individual has a positive attitude towards training then he will choose to attend the same whereas if he has a negative attitude towards training he will not attend it or attend it grudgingly if forced to the same. Hence incorporating Tannenbaums findings, we can say that people who attend training against their choice will not undergo an optimally effective training. Hence we hypothesize that only people who choose to attend the training by way of their positive attitude towards it will be more motivated about the training and hence consequently the training imparted to them will be effective. No previous research has aimed to study this mediating effect of training motivation on the relationship between Training attitude and training effectiveness and this is the gap we propose to fi ll by means of our research. We hypothesize that Training effectiveness is impacted by Training Attitude of the individual via the mediating variable of training motivation. Training attitude positively affects training effectiveness. Training Motivation acts as the mediating variable on the relationship between Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. Moderating Effect of Prior Work Experience: Goldstein (2002) stated in his research that training transfer happens more effectively if tasks in the training environment are congruent with those in the actual work environment. Typically the young Indian professional fresh out of college will prefer the formal training programs as he is not exposed to any other way of learning. However as we have talked about training attitude it is important to study the effect of previous trainings on the individuals attitude. Employees who have undergone much training and have worked for enough years in the organization may have seen other methods of learning their job or skill apart from formal training programs to form different attitudes about training than those who have very little work experience. Learning On -the-job takes place within the workplace while the employee is doing actual work in the actual work environment under normal working conditions. This is important because it ensures that skills taught in such informal training can be readily transferred to the job (Kleiner Read, 1996). Work based learning focuses on reviewing and learning from experience and is cantered on learning from action rather than simply developing competencies (Dymock Gerber, 2002). Since the employee is trained in normal working condition, there is a high sense of relevance and validity to the employee (Clifford Thorpe, 2007) and is a tool to increase the productivity (Jain, 1999). Learning on the job happens on an individual level and the greatest advantage of this is that it enables each participant to determine the speed with which learning can proceed, at the same time providing a high level of feedback and trainee involvement (Kleiner Read, 1996). Other advantages are that the employee is being productive during training, and thus the associated costs may be less (Kleiner Read, 1996); this training may be given to more people than it is possible at a training institution (Jain,1999). Thus we can see that on the job learning may be perceived to be more effective than formal trainings by employees with greater years of work experience behind them. This could also possibly affect their attitude towards formal training programs and its utility. Hence the effect of training attitude on training effectiveness may be moderated by the prior work experience of the individual. We hypothesize that more is the prior work experience of an individual the more likely he has understood how to perform on his job and how to acquire skills on the job and hence the more it is likely that he will not have a favourable attitude towards formal training programs. Thereby the effectiveness of training programs on such individuals will be subdued. Thus, in this research we will aim to study the moderating effect of Prior work experience on the relationship between Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. The prior work experience of individual has a negative moderating effect on the relationship between Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. We would also like to study whether the Mediating Effect of Training Motivation on the relationship between Training attitude and Training effectiveness is valid for different groups of people with varied work experience. For this purpose we propose to study the said relationship by dividing the data set into groups of people with differing work experience. According to our theoretical study we expect to observe a more significant mediated relationship between training attitude and effectiveness for people with lower work experience than those with higher work experience. For people with lower work experience the relationship between training attitude and training effectiveness mediated by training motivation is more significant. Methods: Sample: Around 200 participants from various manufacturing organizations were contacted in person and via e-mail and the questionnaire was administered. Out of the 200 people contacted 122 (61%) people chose to participate. Most of the participants were chosen from the technical background who have undergone some sort of training at their work place. To maintain anonymity the questionnaire did not contain any identifiers. The researchers themselves administered the questionnaire and they themselves collected the responses. Measures: All the scale used to measure the various constructs were measured using a 7 point Likert scale ranging from 1(Very Strongly Disagree, Very Strongly Unlikely) to 7(Very Strongly Agree, Very Strongly Likely). Training Attitude: Training attitude was measured using a 9 item scale developed by Anupama Narayanan and Debra Steele-Johnson (2007). A sample item is I enjoy participating in training programs offered at work. Training Motivation: Training motivation was measured using a 14 item scale developed by Phyllis Tharenou (2001) which was adopted from Noe and Wilk (1993) 17 item scale. This scale was based on the valence instrumentality expectancy theory and had 7 items each for valence and instrumentality. A sample item for instrumentality is How likely you will obtain a pay increase from KSA from TD. A sample item for valence is How important is obtaining pay increase to you. Training Effectiveness: The training effectiveness was measured through a 4 item scale. This scale was a shortened version of the Kirkpatricks scale and was developed by Alan Chapman. The training effectiveness was measured on different parameters namely reaction, learning, behavior and productivity. Prior Work experience: The prior work experience was measured using a single question to the participants asking them of the number of years of prior years of work experience. Analysis: The study was intended to find the mediation effect of training motivation between training attitude and training effectiveness. The procedure followed to study the mediation effect was adopted from the study by Baron and Kenny (1986). Further the researchers also studied the moderation effect of years of prior work experience on the direct relation between training attitude and training effectiveness. This was done through a 2 model approach using the standardized multiplied values for training attitude and years of prior work experience. All the analysis was done using SPSS software. Further the entire sample of respondents was divided into 2 classes based on the work experience, one having work experience more than the median and one having less than the median. The median value was ignored and the mediation analysis was carried out using the Baron and Kenny model (1986). Results: The means, standard deviations and correlations .All the variables were found to be significantly correlated with each another. It can be easily seen from the table 1 that the correlation among all the variables is very high. To test the internal consistency of the scales measuring the constructs, the Cronbachs Alpha Coefficient was calculated and it was found that all the scales were reliable as the Cronbachs Coefficient was greater than 0.7. The results of the measures of internal consistency. Again it can be seen that the Cronbachs Alpha Coefficient is very high indicating that the internal consistency of the scales is very high. Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlations: Measures of internal consistency Cronbachs Alpha Coefficient: In this research we have primarily hypothesized the relationship between training attitude and training effectiveness with training motivation as the mediating variable. Apart from the mediation effect, the moderation effect of number of years of prior work experience on the direct effect of training attitude on training effectiveness has been studied. The results of the mediation effect of training motivation on the relationship between training attitude and training effectiveness. The mediation effect was studied using the 4 step Baron and Kenny model of regression analysis. In the first step, the independent variable training attitude was shown to affect the outcome variable i.e. training effectiveness significantly. In the next step, the independent variable was shown to affect the mediator variable i.e. training motivation significantly. In the third step, the mediator variable was shown to have a significant effect on the dependent variable. These steps showed that the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness was mediated by training motivation. In the 4th step, the mediation effect was calculated through a regression analysis in which the mediator and the independent variable were the predictors and the criterion variable was the dependent variable. Regression results to study mediation effect: The mediation is significant and the mediation effect was calculated to be 0.923 standard deviations. Also in the fourth step, since the effect of training attitude on training effectiveness becomes insignificant we can safely infer that full mediation is present. The step I shows the regression results when training effectiveness was taken as the criterion variable and the training attitude was taken as the independent variable. From this step we saw that training attitude was significantly related to the training effectiveness. Here the value of R2 was found to be 0.796 with F = 468.143 at p The step II shows the regression results when training motivation was taken as the dependent variable with training attitude as the predictor variable. In this step it was seen that training attitude was significantly related to training effectiveness. The R2 value was found to be 0.883 with F = 904.66 at p The step III shows the regression results when training effectiveness was taken as the dependent variable with training motivation being the predictor variable. In this step it was found that the training motivation is significantly related to training effectiveness. The R2 value was found to be 0.909 at p The step IV shows the regression results when training effectiveness was taken as the criterion variable with both training motivation and training attitude as the predictor variables. From this step we could conclude that training motivation was significantly related to training effectiveness and also we see that training attitude loses the significance of its effect that it had on training effectiveness in step I. The R2 value was found to be 0.909 at p The above 4 steps show that the mediation effect of training motivation between training attitude and training effectiveness is a full mediation effect as the independent, variable training attitude, becomes insignificantly related to the criterion variable (Baron and Kenny, 1986). The steps I, II and III are used to test the first 3 hypothesis. In step I it was shown that training attitude was significantly related to training effectiveness hence H3 is accepted. Similarly in the step II it was shown that training attitude was significantly related to training motivation and hence H1 is accepted. In the third step, it was found that training motivation was significantly related to training effectiveness and hence H2 is accepted. Training attitude was significantly related to training effectiveness in the first step and to training motivation in the second step but it was non-significantly related to training effectiveness in the fourth step. From this we could infer that training motivation fully mediates the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness. Thus H4 is supported. The Sobels test was used to just verify the mediation effect. The test showed that the mediation effect is statistically significant (Mediation effect = 0.923; Z-score = 8.68; p In addition to the above mediation analysis, we also tried to understand the role of work experience on the mediation analysis. Hence 2 more mediation analysis were carried out in which the entire data set was broken down in 2 sets, one with respondents having 2 or more years of work experience, second with respondents having less than 2 years of work experience. This was so done because the median work experience of the sample studied was 2 yrs. Impact of years of work experience on the mediating role of training motivation on training effectiveness was studied. First we take the case of respondents having less than 2 years of work experience. The same steps as stated above according to the Baron and Kenny Model were repeated and the results. Regression results to study mediation effect on respondents with work experience of less than 2 years: Again as we can see that training motivation fully mediates the relation between the training attitude and training effectiveness. In the first step we used training effectiveness as the criterion variable with training attitude as the predictor variable. The relation was found to be significant and positively related with R2 = 0.468; p In the next step, training motivation taken as the criterion variable and training attitude was taken as the independent variable. This relation was again found significant and positively related with R2 = 0.639; p In the third step, training motivation was now taken as the predictor variable and training effectiveness was taken as the dependent variable. It was found that this relation was significant with R2 = 0.660; p In the last step, both training attitude and training motivation were taken as the predictor variables and training effectiveness was taken as the dependent variable. In this step, the relation between training attitude on training effectiveness became insignificant hence it was proved that training motivation fully mediates the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness. The mediated effect was found to be 0.592 and the overall mediation was found to be significant using the Sobels test. Using the Sobels Test the Z score was found to be 4.7498. Thus showing that the mediation effect of training motivation on the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness is significant. Another mediation analysis was done to test the mediation effect of training motivation on the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness for respondents having more than 2 years of work experience. This was again a 4 step analysis as per the Baron and Kenny model and the results. As we can see in the table 5, in the first step it was found that training attitude significantly affect training effectiveness. In the second step it was found that training attitude significantly affects training motivation. In the third step, it was found that training motivation significantly affects training effectiveness. And in the fourth it was found that training motivation significantly affects effectiveness but impact of training attitude on effectiveness becomes insignificant. This showed that training motivation mediates the relation between attitude and effectiveness. Regression results to study mediation effect on respondents with work experience of more than 2 years: From the fourth step we can see that training motivation mediates the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness fully. The overall significance of the mediation was checked using the Sobels test. Effect of Motivation on Employee Training Effectiveness Effect of Motivation on Employee Training Effectiveness Training is an integral part of workforce development and creation of new competencies within the workforce to ensure that the organization keeps up with the changing needs of the times. Training is related to performance in two ways. Effective training has a direct impact on the performance output and any gap in an individuals performance can sometimes be filled with training. For employees, lack of training also causes a lack of self-satisfaction and productivity. Training is seen as a major cost center in most organizations in India even though its necessity is widely accepted. This negative view can mostly be attributed because of the apparent lack of direct linkage between training and the bottom-line of the company. In todays world, where the HR department needs to justify its expenses, especially in the wake of recession and lay-offs, it is essential that the trainings rendered are of optimum efficiency in achieving the set target and also that it be done at the least possible cost. Hence it is important to understand whether the methods of training employed are yielding the desired results or alternatively if the same results can be attained in more cost effective ways. One major factor influencing the training effectiveness is training motivation, as we have explained in the literature review below. But the attitude of employees towards formal training is another factor which will decide whether it is justified to spend so much money on formal training modules if the same end result can be obtained by informal on the job training if it is preferred by the employees. Hence we explore the links between these constructs. Theoretical Review and Hypothesis: Training Attitude: Development activities like training are significantly affected by attitudes and perceptual variables (Noe and Wilk, 1993).Eagly Chaiken (1998) defined attitude as the psychological tendency to evaluate an entity with a certain degree of favor or disfavor. These attitudes are good predictors of behavior (Ajzen, 1991).We can extend this line of reason to say that a person with a positive attitude to certain entity will show favorable behavioral response towards it and a person with a negative attitude to it will show an unfavorable behavioral response. Training attitude applies the definition of attitude to training. A persons attitude towards training is a measure or reflection of his or her attitude towards the formal process of knowledge and skill acquisition. Thus we can say that training attitude is indirectly a measure of liking an individual has for the formal process of training as opposed to say learning something on-the-job informally. It logically follows that those who ha ve a positive attitude towards training will be more likely to attend the training programs willingly and gain from it as compared to someone who has a negative attitude towards training which is to say, that training attitude determines the motivation with which a person attends training programs, especially in an organizational scenario where training programs are mandatory. Also this very attitude can be linked to how much learning happens in the training. The scale for measuring the training attitude construct was developed by Anupama Narayan and Debra Steele Johnson (2007) for their research. This was a 20 item scale addressing participants evaluation of 2 issues: How relevant and useful they perceived training programs to be. How much they desired to practice acquired skills on job. This scale with 7 point likert type response pattern had a high level of internal consistency (alpha =0.92) However some items were redundant and for the purpose of this research were omitted. The resulting 9 item scale was again tested for internal consistency and displayed a Cronbachs Alpha= 0.91 which is fairly high. The response to the 7 point likert scale was interpreted as a summated score which indicated the degree of positive attitude towards training among the respondents. Training Motivation: Quinones (1997) aptly described motivation to be an individuals choice to dedicate more energy to one set of behavior over others. In the training context, Blanchard Thacker (2004) explain motivation as an inspiration which is directed by trainees personal needs and decision processes they use to satisfy those needs. Or, as Colquitt (2007) puts it , training motivation is the persistence and intensity of learning -directed behavior in the context of training. Training motivation is affected by a diverse set of internal and external factors as suggested by various research papers. Work environment, organizational climate, supervisory support etc are a few of the external factors researched upon whereas the internal factors hypothesized to affect training motivation include self efficacy, personal mental ability and personality (Colquitt et al, 2000). One of the most popular theories to explain motivation is the expectancy theory of how people are motivated by the results of their behavior (Bandura, 1997). We can also view Vrooms expectancy theory as a theoretical framework for examining training motivation. Vrooms model suggests that expectation of an act being followed by a certain outcome often shapes the motivation for doing that act. To extend this to the context of training motivation, if a trainee expects that the effort he puts into attending training programs will yield valued outcomes to him then he will be motivated to attend the same. Hence this research attempts to understand the valence -instrumentality link associated with training. We measure what the trainee values and whether he perceives those things to be outcome of training programs. A 14 item scale, with 7 items each for valence and instrumentality of factors associated with training, was adapted from the research paper by Phyllis Tharenou (2001).The factors of valence included in the scale are Reaching career goals, Pay increase, Job security, Change to workplace, Promotion or advancement, Opportunities for different career paths, Supervisor praise. The responses for these questions were taken on a 7 point likert scale and scores were summated to arrive at the level of training motivation of the respondent. A higher score symbolizes that the respondent values the inherent factors highly and also perceives that training will help him achieve the same. Training Effectiveness: Training effectiveness is essentially a measure of how effective the training imparted was. Many researchers including Ford (1997), Noe (1986), and Tannenbaum (1992) have recognized training effectiveness as a crucial issue for organizations. Employee performance and productivity can be measurably improved if trainings are effective and organizations will be able to avoid wasteful spending on ineffective trainings. Most organizations would want to have a good return on their training investment. According to London (1989) and Noe (1999) training interventions in organizations are going to increase hence the training effectiveness is going to be an important feature in the organizations. Kirkpatricks (1976) four level approach is one of the most extensively used methods for evaluating training effectiveness (Alliger Janak, 1989). This four level approach measures training effectiveness vis-Ã  -vis the trainees reactions to a training program, the extent to which trainees can execute desired behaviors related to the training, the acquisition of skills and knowledge by the trainee and resulting change in the job behaviors of the trainee. It has been a common assumption among researchers that these 4 levels linked in a linear fashion hierarchically. Hamblin (1947) illustrated the cause and effect chain as training leading to reactions which in turn leads to learning and that leads to change in job behavior. But this empirical evidence for this proposed link has been inconclusive. This led Alliger Janak (1989) to conduct a Meta analysis and conclude that the four factors are not necessarily linearly linked. There are several factors like training motivation attitude, context of training and other influences which attenuate the link between trainees reaction and other criterion measures. A four item shortened version of the Kirkpatrick scale was used for measuring the training effectiveness. The measured effectiveness was the perceived effectiveness of the last im parted training program. Sample items in the scale included questions like Did I enjoy the course. The response was obtained on a 7 point likert scale varying from strongly disagree to strongly agree and the summated score of each item response was used as the measure of the training effectiveness and higher the score higher was the perceived effectiveness of the training. Training Attitude and Training Motivation: Individuals disposition or attitude towards formal training programs has been shown to have a direct influence on his training motivation (Ford Noe, 1987). Training attitude also displays his motivation to learn (Tannenbaum Yukl, 1992) and his motivation to attend training (Facteau et al, 1995) as distinct from training motivation. What the above mentioned research suggests is that there is a logical and empirical link between a person liking a training program and being motivated to attend the same. However the extant literature mentions this relationship in a very general and broad format. We would like to hypothesis a more specific relationship. Going back to our definition of training motivation , we have said that it is the perceived valence the trainee associates with certain outcomes and how instrumental he feels attending a training is in order to acquire them .We listed these outcomes as career development, superior praise, promotion or development, pay increase , job secu rity etc. Research suggests that there is very strong link between training attitude and training motivation .Carlson et al.(2000) found a high correlation between training attitude scores and training motivation scores in their research.Now most employees may find that there is a perceived strong connection between attending trainings and achieving these outcomes and hence may attend trainings when they are mandatory rather than volunteer for it. But otherwise, based on his experience he might feel that training programs are a waste of time over all and he learns more on his job. Especially in the context of Indian manufacturing industry where trainings are mandatory, employees might not be predisposed to attending trainings, but will attend them anyways due to perceived benefits. Hence in this research we are testing whether having a positive attitude towards training increases the individuals training motivation and how much is it correlated. Hence, Training Attitude of an individual positively impacts his Training Motivation: Training Motivation and Training Effectiveness: Based on our understanding of motivation, an individual is more likely to expend more energy for a task he is motivated to do and hence is more probable to do that task more effectively than other tasks. Extending this logic forward if a person is motivated to attend training then he is more likely to enjoy the training, learn most from it and apply it on to his job. In other words the effectiveness of the training imparted will be high if the trainees entering the training program are highly motivated for the same. In the organizational context it is imperative that different individuals enter the training with different levels of motivation. These differences in the level of motivation may be an outcome of various factors like personal characteristics and work environments. After studying these effects, Salas et al.1(1992) hypothesized that individuals motivated to do well in training will be the ones who end up learning the content of the program better than their lesser motivated counterparts. Training effectiveness is measured in terms of 4 parameters derived from the Kirkpatricks model. These parameters are namely, Learning, Behavior, Reaction and Applications of skills. Several studies put forth empirical support indicating a link between trainees motivation and learning (Rails Klien, 1991; Clark 1990; Hicks Klimoski 1987; Baldwin et al., 1991).The attention levels and openness to new ideas is increased by pre-training motivation. Hence theoretically trainees who are more motivated should be more ready or primed to learn and apply their learnings. Also a person motivated to attend the training will be more likely to enjoy it thus displaying a positive reaction. Whereas a person who is unmotivated to attend training will not learn much from the training even if he ends up enjoying the experience (Mathieu et al., 1992). Consequently we also hypothesize a direct relation between how much the trainee learns and how much he is motivated about the training to how much of the learned skills he will apply in his job. Thus training motivation can be hypothesized to bring about change in behavior of the trainee as well. Based on the above reasoning we state out second hypothesis as, Training motivation positively impacts training effectiveness Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. Hicks and Klimoski (1987) attempted to study the effect of choice of attending the training program with effectiveness of the training program. They hypothesized that if trainee had a choice of attending a training program then he will be more satisfied by it than otherwise. Ryman and Biersner (1975) also studied the effect of choice on training outcome. They found that giving a choice to attend the training program resulted in lesser dropouts from the program and greater training success. In a slight variation of this experiment, Baldwin, Magjuka and Lober (1991) reported that when trainees received their top choice from the available training programs they reported higher pre training motivation and. They also learned more as compared to other trainees who did not get their top pick. Tannebaum et al. (1992) showed by way of their research that individuals who nominate themselves for training actually attach a greater instrumentality to the program and report higher training motivat ion than others. This in turn leads to greater training effectiveness. The same was researched upon and confirmed by Gormley, Collins et al. (2009) on their study on Medical students undergoing E-learning programs. In our research we would like to extend the above findings to the context of training attitude. Training attitude can be seen as the pre disposition of the individual towards attending training. If the individual has a positive attitude towards training then he will choose to attend the same whereas if he has a negative attitude towards training he will not attend it or attend it grudgingly if forced to the same. Hence incorporating Tannenbaums findings, we can say that people who attend training against their choice will not undergo an optimally effective training. Hence we hypothesize that only people who choose to attend the training by way of their positive attitude towards it will be more motivated about the training and hence consequently the training imparted to them will be effective. No previous research has aimed to study this mediating effect of training motivation on the relationship between Training attitude and training effectiveness and this is the gap we propose to fi ll by means of our research. We hypothesize that Training effectiveness is impacted by Training Attitude of the individual via the mediating variable of training motivation. Training attitude positively affects training effectiveness. Training Motivation acts as the mediating variable on the relationship between Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. Moderating Effect of Prior Work Experience: Goldstein (2002) stated in his research that training transfer happens more effectively if tasks in the training environment are congruent with those in the actual work environment. Typically the young Indian professional fresh out of college will prefer the formal training programs as he is not exposed to any other way of learning. However as we have talked about training attitude it is important to study the effect of previous trainings on the individuals attitude. Employees who have undergone much training and have worked for enough years in the organization may have seen other methods of learning their job or skill apart from formal training programs to form different attitudes about training than those who have very little work experience. Learning On -the-job takes place within the workplace while the employee is doing actual work in the actual work environment under normal working conditions. This is important because it ensures that skills taught in such informal training can be readily transferred to the job (Kleiner Read, 1996). Work based learning focuses on reviewing and learning from experience and is cantered on learning from action rather than simply developing competencies (Dymock Gerber, 2002). Since the employee is trained in normal working condition, there is a high sense of relevance and validity to the employee (Clifford Thorpe, 2007) and is a tool to increase the productivity (Jain, 1999). Learning on the job happens on an individual level and the greatest advantage of this is that it enables each participant to determine the speed with which learning can proceed, at the same time providing a high level of feedback and trainee involvement (Kleiner Read, 1996). Other advantages are that the employee is being productive during training, and thus the associated costs may be less (Kleiner Read, 1996); this training may be given to more people than it is possible at a training institution (Jain,1999). Thus we can see that on the job learning may be perceived to be more effective than formal trainings by employees with greater years of work experience behind them. This could also possibly affect their attitude towards formal training programs and its utility. Hence the effect of training attitude on training effectiveness may be moderated by the prior work experience of the individual. We hypothesize that more is the prior work experience of an individual the more likely he has understood how to perform on his job and how to acquire skills on the job and hence the more it is likely that he will not have a favourable attitude towards formal training programs. Thereby the effectiveness of training programs on such individuals will be subdued. Thus, in this research we will aim to study the moderating effect of Prior work experience on the relationship between Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. The prior work experience of individual has a negative moderating effect on the relationship between Training Attitude and Training Effectiveness. We would also like to study whether the Mediating Effect of Training Motivation on the relationship between Training attitude and Training effectiveness is valid for different groups of people with varied work experience. For this purpose we propose to study the said relationship by dividing the data set into groups of people with differing work experience. According to our theoretical study we expect to observe a more significant mediated relationship between training attitude and effectiveness for people with lower work experience than those with higher work experience. For people with lower work experience the relationship between training attitude and training effectiveness mediated by training motivation is more significant. Methods: Sample: Around 200 participants from various manufacturing organizations were contacted in person and via e-mail and the questionnaire was administered. Out of the 200 people contacted 122 (61%) people chose to participate. Most of the participants were chosen from the technical background who have undergone some sort of training at their work place. To maintain anonymity the questionnaire did not contain any identifiers. The researchers themselves administered the questionnaire and they themselves collected the responses. Measures: All the scale used to measure the various constructs were measured using a 7 point Likert scale ranging from 1(Very Strongly Disagree, Very Strongly Unlikely) to 7(Very Strongly Agree, Very Strongly Likely). Training Attitude: Training attitude was measured using a 9 item scale developed by Anupama Narayanan and Debra Steele-Johnson (2007). A sample item is I enjoy participating in training programs offered at work. Training Motivation: Training motivation was measured using a 14 item scale developed by Phyllis Tharenou (2001) which was adopted from Noe and Wilk (1993) 17 item scale. This scale was based on the valence instrumentality expectancy theory and had 7 items each for valence and instrumentality. A sample item for instrumentality is How likely you will obtain a pay increase from KSA from TD. A sample item for valence is How important is obtaining pay increase to you. Training Effectiveness: The training effectiveness was measured through a 4 item scale. This scale was a shortened version of the Kirkpatricks scale and was developed by Alan Chapman. The training effectiveness was measured on different parameters namely reaction, learning, behavior and productivity. Prior Work experience: The prior work experience was measured using a single question to the participants asking them of the number of years of prior years of work experience. Analysis: The study was intended to find the mediation effect of training motivation between training attitude and training effectiveness. The procedure followed to study the mediation effect was adopted from the study by Baron and Kenny (1986). Further the researchers also studied the moderation effect of years of prior work experience on the direct relation between training attitude and training effectiveness. This was done through a 2 model approach using the standardized multiplied values for training attitude and years of prior work experience. All the analysis was done using SPSS software. Further the entire sample of respondents was divided into 2 classes based on the work experience, one having work experience more than the median and one having less than the median. The median value was ignored and the mediation analysis was carried out using the Baron and Kenny model (1986). Results: The means, standard deviations and correlations .All the variables were found to be significantly correlated with each another. It can be easily seen from the table 1 that the correlation among all the variables is very high. To test the internal consistency of the scales measuring the constructs, the Cronbachs Alpha Coefficient was calculated and it was found that all the scales were reliable as the Cronbachs Coefficient was greater than 0.7. The results of the measures of internal consistency. Again it can be seen that the Cronbachs Alpha Coefficient is very high indicating that the internal consistency of the scales is very high. Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlations: Measures of internal consistency Cronbachs Alpha Coefficient: In this research we have primarily hypothesized the relationship between training attitude and training effectiveness with training motivation as the mediating variable. Apart from the mediation effect, the moderation effect of number of years of prior work experience on the direct effect of training attitude on training effectiveness has been studied. The results of the mediation effect of training motivation on the relationship between training attitude and training effectiveness. The mediation effect was studied using the 4 step Baron and Kenny model of regression analysis. In the first step, the independent variable training attitude was shown to affect the outcome variable i.e. training effectiveness significantly. In the next step, the independent variable was shown to affect the mediator variable i.e. training motivation significantly. In the third step, the mediator variable was shown to have a significant effect on the dependent variable. These steps showed that the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness was mediated by training motivation. In the 4th step, the mediation effect was calculated through a regression analysis in which the mediator and the independent variable were the predictors and the criterion variable was the dependent variable. Regression results to study mediation effect: The mediation is significant and the mediation effect was calculated to be 0.923 standard deviations. Also in the fourth step, since the effect of training attitude on training effectiveness becomes insignificant we can safely infer that full mediation is present. The step I shows the regression results when training effectiveness was taken as the criterion variable and the training attitude was taken as the independent variable. From this step we saw that training attitude was significantly related to the training effectiveness. Here the value of R2 was found to be 0.796 with F = 468.143 at p The step II shows the regression results when training motivation was taken as the dependent variable with training attitude as the predictor variable. In this step it was seen that training attitude was significantly related to training effectiveness. The R2 value was found to be 0.883 with F = 904.66 at p The step III shows the regression results when training effectiveness was taken as the dependent variable with training motivation being the predictor variable. In this step it was found that the training motivation is significantly related to training effectiveness. The R2 value was found to be 0.909 at p The step IV shows the regression results when training effectiveness was taken as the criterion variable with both training motivation and training attitude as the predictor variables. From this step we could conclude that training motivation was significantly related to training effectiveness and also we see that training attitude loses the significance of its effect that it had on training effectiveness in step I. The R2 value was found to be 0.909 at p The above 4 steps show that the mediation effect of training motivation between training attitude and training effectiveness is a full mediation effect as the independent, variable training attitude, becomes insignificantly related to the criterion variable (Baron and Kenny, 1986). The steps I, II and III are used to test the first 3 hypothesis. In step I it was shown that training attitude was significantly related to training effectiveness hence H3 is accepted. Similarly in the step II it was shown that training attitude was significantly related to training motivation and hence H1 is accepted. In the third step, it was found that training motivation was significantly related to training effectiveness and hence H2 is accepted. Training attitude was significantly related to training effectiveness in the first step and to training motivation in the second step but it was non-significantly related to training effectiveness in the fourth step. From this we could infer that training motivation fully mediates the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness. Thus H4 is supported. The Sobels test was used to just verify the mediation effect. The test showed that the mediation effect is statistically significant (Mediation effect = 0.923; Z-score = 8.68; p In addition to the above mediation analysis, we also tried to understand the role of work experience on the mediation analysis. Hence 2 more mediation analysis were carried out in which the entire data set was broken down in 2 sets, one with respondents having 2 or more years of work experience, second with respondents having less than 2 years of work experience. This was so done because the median work experience of the sample studied was 2 yrs. Impact of years of work experience on the mediating role of training motivation on training effectiveness was studied. First we take the case of respondents having less than 2 years of work experience. The same steps as stated above according to the Baron and Kenny Model were repeated and the results. Regression results to study mediation effect on respondents with work experience of less than 2 years: Again as we can see that training motivation fully mediates the relation between the training attitude and training effectiveness. In the first step we used training effectiveness as the criterion variable with training attitude as the predictor variable. The relation was found to be significant and positively related with R2 = 0.468; p In the next step, training motivation taken as the criterion variable and training attitude was taken as the independent variable. This relation was again found significant and positively related with R2 = 0.639; p In the third step, training motivation was now taken as the predictor variable and training effectiveness was taken as the dependent variable. It was found that this relation was significant with R2 = 0.660; p In the last step, both training attitude and training motivation were taken as the predictor variables and training effectiveness was taken as the dependent variable. In this step, the relation between training attitude on training effectiveness became insignificant hence it was proved that training motivation fully mediates the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness. The mediated effect was found to be 0.592 and the overall mediation was found to be significant using the Sobels test. Using the Sobels Test the Z score was found to be 4.7498. Thus showing that the mediation effect of training motivation on the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness is significant. Another mediation analysis was done to test the mediation effect of training motivation on the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness for respondents having more than 2 years of work experience. This was again a 4 step analysis as per the Baron and Kenny model and the results. As we can see in the table 5, in the first step it was found that training attitude significantly affect training effectiveness. In the second step it was found that training attitude significantly affects training motivation. In the third step, it was found that training motivation significantly affects training effectiveness. And in the fourth it was found that training motivation significantly affects effectiveness but impact of training attitude on effectiveness becomes insignificant. This showed that training motivation mediates the relation between attitude and effectiveness. Regression results to study mediation effect on respondents with work experience of more than 2 years: From the fourth step we can see that training motivation mediates the relation between training attitude and training effectiveness fully. The overall significance of the mediation was checked using the Sobels test.